Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning theories help people understand the complex mechanism behind the process of learning. Learning theories can fall under at least three philosophical frameworks: constructivism, behaviourism and cognitivism. In constructivism, learning is viewed as a process where the learner is actively involved in constructing and building new ideas or concepts. Behaviourism on the other hand is concentrated on aspects of learning that can be observed. Finally, cognitive theories are meant to look beyond behaviour and attempts to explain brain-based learning.
In particular, behaviourism focuses on the activity of the animal and not the internal processing that might be associated with the activity. In the study of behaviourism, learning can thus be interpreted as the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning wherein the conditioning can be in the form of classical conditioning or operant conditioning. Classical conditioning results in acquisition of a behaviour, which becomes a natural reflex response to stimulus. Operant conditioning is where the behaviour is reinforced by either a reward or a punishment.
Classical Conditioning, an associative learning form was first shown by Ivan Pavlov (Pavlov, 1960). Induction of classical conditioning is brought about by presenting both a neutral stimulus and a stimulus of some significance to an animal. It is done to condition automatic responses in an animal without using the actual stimuli that would naturally create such a response and in the process create an association between stimuli that normally would not have any effect on the animal and stimuli that would. The neutral stimuli used may be any occurrence that usually does not bring about an obvious behavioural response from the animal. Pavlov calls this form of stimulus a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). In Pavlov’s opinion an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is one that invokes an innate, natural and often reflective response, also known as an Unconditioned Response (UR).
The repeated pairing of the CS and the US will eventually lead to the two stimuli becoming associated and the animal will begin producing a behavioural response to the CS and this response in termed as the Conditioned Response (CR) (Kirsch et al., 2004). Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eye blink conditioning, and Classical Conditioning of Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex (Kirsch et al., 2004).
B.F. Skinner first developed the theory of operant conditioning. Briefly, it refers to the effect of reinforcement and punishment to the likelihood of a particular type of behaviour recurring or not respectively. In this theory, it is important to note that the definition of reinforcement and punishment varies on a case-by-case basis and is determined as a result of the actions. For example, an action can only be considered a punishment if it results in the reduction of a certain type of behaviour. It thus results in a predictable relationship among an events and the animal learns to respond to the first event in anticipation of the second event. In the theory of operant conditioning it is believed that here are four consequences to behaviour. They include Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment. Positive reinforcement is where an animal does something that the owner of the animal wants the animal to do and the owner in exchange gives the animal something it likes. For example, the dog sits, fetches, lies down or gives his paw according to the owners’ instructions and in exchange the owner gives the dog a treat. This will increase the chances of the behaviour recurring. “Positive reinforcement is the basis of all conditioning.” (K. Pryor 1984)
Negative reinforcement involves using something that the animal does not like to obtain a response the owner wants and then removing the very thing that the animal does not like when the animal responses in the manner that the owner wants. For example, when a dog is asked to “sit” and upward pressure may be applied on the leash that makes the dog undergo some form of discomfort. As soon as the dog sits, the pressure is stopped. The release of the upward pressure reinforces the “sit.” This also increases the chances of the behaviour in the future.
Positive punishment comprises the adding of a bad outcome when a particular unwanted response is performed. For example, when instructing a dog to “sit”, the dog lies down, it may be possible to exert an upward pressure to the leash and get the dog on its feet. This decreases the possibility of the response in the future.
Finally negative punishment comprises the removal of a good outcome when an unwanted response is performed. For example when a dog is instructed to “sit” and instead it lies down, the treat, which was to be given to the dog, should be confiscated. This also serves to decrease the chances of such an unwanted response in the future.
In view of the above, there are many differences between the two types of conditioning. For example, a vital feature of operant conditioning appears to be reinforcement; classical conditioning however, depends on the association between stimuli and responses. Further, to a large extent operant conditioning is based on voluntary behaviour, whereas classical conditioning involves mainly involuntary reflex behaviour.
Although they have their differences, these two forms of conditioning share many similarities as well. For example, they result in basic phenomena such as acquisition of a certain type of behaviour. Also, organisms undergoing either operant or classical conditioning may experience stimulus generalization. This occurs when a learned response is transferred to different but similar stimuli. Classical and operant conditioning may resort in stimulus discrimination as well. Discrimination is when an organism learns to respond to only one stimulus and inhibit the response to all other stimuli.
Spontaneous recovery is another phenomenon that may be a result of these two forms of conditioning. Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time, without further training. Both forms of conditioning may also result in the extinction of the response. For example, in classical conditioning, extinction will result if there is a decrease in the strength or frequency of an acquired response due to the failure to persist in the pairing of the US and the CS. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when reinforcement is withdrawn.