Explain the notion of Dharma and how it relates to ‘Class’ (Varna) and ‘Stages of Life’ (Asrama)

The Laws of Manu is an influential text in Hinduism and, consequently, in Indian society. There is, however, disagreement about its relevance and importance. The present analysis will look specifically at the concepts of Dharma, Varna and Asrama, which are central to the Hindu religion, and discuss their relation to the Laws of Manu. It will also look at the controversy surrounding the Laws of Manu and discuss whether the text provides a theological justification for the Indian caste system.
Dharma has been described as the “code of duty, religious law and right human conduct which defines the path to virtue and spiritual fulfilment for all humankind” (Bayly, 1999, p. 14). It is a central concept in Indian religions, the largest of which is Hinduism. Dharma is traditionally seen as the right way of life, a moral guidance for each individual in Hindu society. It is connected to the belief in reincarnation and the ultimate goal of liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. Those who live according to Dharma are believed to reach this liberated state of being, ‘moksha’, more quickly.
The earliest sources of Dharma are the Vedas, the main sacred scriptures of Hinduism, compiled between 1500 and 1000 BC. However, the Laws of Manu (also known as Manusmriti),composed around the first century AD, contains “a doctrine of dharma as a universal, all-encompassing law” (Flood, 1996, p. 56) and became an important text in Hindu legislation. It is generally believed that it is a work written by several authors and presented as the words of an ancient law maker, Manu. In their introduction to the Penguin translation of the Laws of Manu, Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith argue that
By the early centuries of the Common Era, Manu had become, and remained, the standard source of authority in the orthodox tradition for that centrepiece of Hinduism, varnasrama-dharma (social and religious duties tied to class and stage of life). (Laws of Manu, 1991, p. xviii)
Although the Vedas are seen as scriptures of ‘revelation’, the Laws of Manu became more influential as a prescriptive document and its description of key Hindu concepts such as Dharma, Varna and Asrama became the norm.
When discussing the concept of Dharma, the Laws of Manu is such a key text because it outlines Dharma’s relation to Varna (‘Class’) and Asrama (‘Stages of Life’). Manu divides society into four different Varnas; Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (traders) and Sudras (servants). The first three Varnas are called the ‘twice-born’; the ‘second birth’ referring to an initiation ritual that allows the young males to enter the life of a student. The status of ‘twice-born’ permits them to study the Vedas and progress through the four stages of life, Asrama. These stages are: Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (householder life), Vanaprastha (hermit life) and Sannyasa (renunciation of life). A Hindu must go through this life development in order to reach a unity with God.
The Laws of Manu assigns detailed codes of behaviour to each of the four Varnas and lists their duties, obligations and appropriate occupations. Each Varna has to follow its own law and ethics, its own Dharma. According to Manu, those of the fourth Varna, the Sudras, were born of the God’s feet and are therefore less pure than those of the other Varnas and restricted to working as servants. They cannot pass through the stages of life. The Brahmans have the highest status in society: “The priest is the Lord of this whole creation, according to the law, because he was born of the highest part of the body, because he is the eldest, and because he maintains the Veda” (Laws of Manu, 1991, p. 13). In chapter 10, the Laws of Manu refers to the outcasts, or Untouchables, who are the lowest of men and associated with the lowest occupations. Manu also refers to the status of women: “Her father guards her in childhood, her husband guards her in youth, and her sons guard her in old age. A woman is not fit for independence” (Laws of Manu, 1991, p. 197).
Due to its prescriptive stratification of society, it can be argued that the Laws of Manu is closely linked to the caste system in India. ‘Class’ and ‘Stages of Life’, key issues in the Laws of Manu, are crucial to the concept of Dharma and established ideas in the Hindu belief system. Among Hindus, Varna is often confused with jati, or caste (Sharma, 1999). Although the caste system was formally outlawed in 1947, it is still an important part of Indian society and identity; for example, the outcasts (now referred to as Dalits) experience continual discrimination and poverty and have staged recent demonstrations to protest against the treatment they receive. The Laws of Manu is regarded as a controversial text because of its connection with the caste system and has been criticised for its discrimination of Sudras and outcasts as well as women. It has been called ‘un-Vedic’ and its relevance has been questioned. In Hinduism, the Vedas are given precedence over the Smritis, to which the Laws of Manu belong. Susan Bayly explains that the notion of class is referred to in RigVeda, one of the Vedas. However, “the principles of caste as a universal law of life are further elaborated in the Manavadharmasastra or Manusmriti” (Bayly, 1999, p. 14). The Laws of Manu is the Hindu scripture that formally outlines the division of society as a system of castes. Whether or not the Laws of Manu is seen as relevant to Hinduism seems to depend on the commentator’s attitude to the caste system. There is no doubt, however, of the importance the text has had in Hindu tradition. Why did it acquire such a strong position in the Hindu canon? This question can be answered by looking at the importance of the caste system in India. For a system of power division to work, it needs justification in order to be accepted by everyone, including those at the bottom of the social hierarchy. It can be incorporated in a nation’s legal system, or, perhaps even more effective, presented as ‘law’ in one of the sacred scriptures. Religion is a powerful law maker because the words of God cannot be questioned.
Has the Laws of Manu been used as a theological justification for the caste system? Some theorists would say yes; they see the caste system as a social tradition rather than an essential part of Hinduism. Mahatma Gandhi has argued that the varnashrama of the Vedas “is based on absolute equality of status, notwithstanding passages to the contrary in the Smritis and elsewhere” (Gandhi, 1964, p. 56). He saw the caste system in direct opposition to the Vedic system of ‘Class’ (Varna) and wished to ignore the Manusmriti. Many anthropologists (see for example Kolenda, 1978) claim that the original concept of ‘Class’ was non-fixed; in ancient India the Varnas were merely descriptive, non-hereditary labels of occupational groups and it was possible for people to change their Varna identity. The caste system as we know it today developed over time. This supports the idea that the Laws of Manu and its notion of Dharma were given a central status within Hinduism for political reasons; what belonged to the Hindu scriptures of lesser importance (the Smritis) became known as ‘law’. The Laws of Manu was a useful tool for those who wished to develop and maintain a rigid caste system in India.
In conclusion, the Laws of Manu is a book surrounded by debate and controversy but its influence is evident. Hindu tradition holds the ideas of ‘Class’ and ‘Stages of Life’ as Dharma, or ‘law’, sanctioned by the scriptures. These concepts, as outlined in the Laws of Manu, have become accepted as central to Hinduism. The controversy stems largely from the fact that the text contains detailed references to castes and prescribes a division of society to which each individual must adhere. One may argue that it represents the main connection between the Hindu religion and the Indian caste system. Given the current caste politics in India and the difficulty connected with the elimination of the caste system, it is likely that the Laws of Manu will remain central in the debate and its position in Hinduism will continue to be questioned.